The first generation of robots consisted of automatons. An automaton is a self-moving machine, constructed for the purpose of imitating the motions of men or animals (Asimov, 19). Most of the earliest automatons were clock controlled ornamentations. In the year 1350, an automated rooster was erected on top of the Cathedral in Strasbourg. Every day at noon, it would flap its wings and crow. In 1497, two bell striking giants were built on top of the great clock tower in Piazza San Marco, Venice. Within the same time period, an Arab named al-Jazari wrote a book on automatons. The book included an illustration of an automated Arab lady that filled and emptied a wash basin. The modern toilet was derived from the same principle (Malone, 31).

Later versions of automatons were based on self-contained clockwork mechanisms. In 1738, Jacques de Vaucanson invented an entertaining mechanical duck that quacked, flapped its wings, drank water, ate food, and discarded waste. In 1774, Droz invented one of the most complicated automatons in history. The "automatic scribe" (Malone, 35) could write any message up to 40 characters long. In 1805, Maillardet built a spring-activaed automaton that could draw pictures and write in both French and English (Asimov, 19). At the 1876 World's Fair, life sized automatons including brass instrument players, artists, and card magicians entertained large audiences. Within a few years, Thomas Edison used a condensed version of his phonograph invention in the design of the famous talking doll.

After Capeks R.U.R., electromechanical automatons were referred to as robots. In 1928, an electromechanical robot was built in London (Malone, 17). Although the robot contained an electric motor, electromagnets, pulleys, and wheels, it could not function beyond its platform. In 1940, Westinghouse created two of the first robots that used the electric motor for entire body motion in the rectangular coordinate plane. "Electro" danced, counted to ten, smoked, and announced the latest Westingouse products. His motorized companion dog walked, stood on its hind legs, and barked.

After the invention of the transistor in 1948, many robots were used in conjunction with the computer. The first patent for a computer controlled industrial robot was developed in 1954 by George Devol. Devol created a computerized memory and control system called "universal automation." Devol co-founded the Unimation industrial robot company, and "started the industrial robot revolution" by selling designs of powerful assembly line arms to General Motors (Marrs, 10). In the late 1960's, researchers developed a computer controlled robot called Shakey. The following can be found on page 23 of Asimov's book:

Besides moving between rooms and avoiding objects, Shakey II was able to stack wooden blocks according to spoken instructions. It looked to see if the blocks were properly aligned, and if not, it adjusted the stack. Shakey was once asked to push a box off a platform, but could not reach the box. The robot found a rasmp, pushed the ramp against the platform, rolled up the ramp, and then pushed the box onto the floor.

Hughes Aircraft created the Mobots in the late 1960's (Asimov, 35). Mobots were controlled by remote radio and camera systems operated by either people or computers. They were designed for "environments beyond [human] capacity and for tasks beyond [human] capability." Applications included construction, chemical testing, and nuclear reactor environment interaction.

The parts of many modern robots can be generalized into four categories: the base, object manipulator, primary control system, and sensory system. The base is usually a metal or plastic frame that supports the robot's components. Most industrial robot bases are stationary, although the arms move about (Hall, 50). Other bases move about by treads, wheels, or legs. Wheel driven bases have various configurations. Some have two big rear wheels, and a small front balancing wheel, while others have four equally sized wheels (Marrs: Smart Rabbit, 105). An interesting example of a walking base is the six-legged ODEX I (Marrs, 19). Bases with hopping and galloping legs have also been developed (Ferrel).

The second part of the modern robot is the object manipulator. Basic grasping and manipulation requires a large amount of memory, due to the requirements of smoothness and sensitivity during operation (Ferrel, MIT interview). The minimum number of fingers necessary to grasp an object, hold it securely, and manipulate it smoothly was found to be three. The Best of National Geographic film featured a three-fingered robot that flawlessly manipulated objects including a screw driver, coke can, and pen. Current household robots have simple gripping mechanisms. Common industrial robot object manipulators include the box gripper, cylinder gripper, suction cup, ladle, spotwelding gun, drill, torch, and grinder (Hall, 41: Fig. 3-14).

The third part of the modern robot is the control system. Primary systems include the remote control, driver circuit, or computer. Quite often, the control system consists of a primary control and secondary, application-specific controls. The primary control executes the main program, calling individual functions or reading resultant data, while the secondary control systems determine how those functions are processed. For example, ODEX I has a microprocessor-based motion control system. Each leg has a sensor that sends messages to a corresponding microprocessor. A total of six microprocessors are directed by a "central motion control" microprocessor (Marrs). Dedicating individual microcontrollers to the motion control of their corresponding legs is now common practice by numerous organizations (Texas Tech to name one of many groups).

The final part of the modern robot is the sensory system. The sense of touch is used for object recognition or collision avoidance. For example, a robot hand, equipped with a rubber skin of microswitches, can recognize objects such as screws, pins, and washers (Asimov, 179). Examples of tactile sensors used for avoiding obstacles include metallic loop "feelers," and bumpers with microswitches or conductive foam/backplate contacts (Everett, Chapter 3). The sense of hearing enables a robot to react to spoken commands and sounds within a specified frequency (Marrs: HERO I, 32). The sense of sight enables a robot to recognize colors, shapes, and patterns (Asimov: Video Camera Digitization, 168). The CYBER I robot, mentioned earlier, is equipped with an "ultrasonic vision system" that is used for avoiding obstacles.

A good example of a household applications robot is the well known Arok (Malone, 151), which has been featured in books and on television. The voice activated robot can perform 36 functions including vacuuming, walking the dog, and lifting heavy objects. An older model of a Heathkit robot (HERO I) has a sound sensory system, ultrasonic ranging system, visible light spectrum analyzer, motion detector, speech sytnthesizer, clock, gripper arm, and 6808 microprocessor. It can be programmed to perform simple tasks, like playing games, or highly sophisticated tasks, such as guarding a house. Robots can also be used to help the disabled. The Palo Alto Veteran's Administration Center developed a voice controlled helping hand (Ferrel). The helper could prepare dinner, serve drinks, retrieve desk files, draw, and turn book pages.

In the fourteenth century, clockwork automatons were created for decoration purposes. Eighteenth century automatons were used for entertainment purposes. In the early twentieth century, inventors used electromechanics to modify the automaton into the robot. The transistor was used in the development of computer controlled experimental and industrial robots. The latest robotic applications were made possible through the use of microprocessors. With further innovations, the robot will undoubtedly become a daily necessity.

Works Cited

Asimov, Isaac and Karen Frenkel. Robots: Machines in Man's Image. New York: Harmony Books, 1985.

Everett, H.R. Sensors For Mobile Robots - Theory and Application. Massachusetts: A K Peters, Ltd, 1995.

Ferrel, Mike. The Best of National Geographic - documentary, 1986.

Hall, Ernest. Robotics: A User-Friendly Introduction. Canada: Saunders College Publishing, 1985.

Malone, Robert. The Robot Book. New York: Push Pin Press, 1978.

Marrs, Texe. The Personal Robot Book. Pennsylvania: TAB Inc., 1985.